Testing of digital systems

This paper is intended to be both a tutorial on hardware testing and a brief survey of existing techniques. Testing is discussed at all levels in the digital system hierarchy as well as at every stage of a system's life. The paper is organized into three parts. In the first part, fundamental concepts are presented. The second part reviews various testing techniques, with special emphasis on those that have gained wide acceptance. Finally, design techniques which promise to produce "easily testable" hardware are explored.