From Tech to Road: Revolutionizing EV-Battery Reliability for a Greener Future

Yes, or no? There is a reliability issue.

 Yes, or no?There is a reliability issue.
As we stand on the brink of a transportation revolution, electric vehicles (EVs) emerge as the champions of sustainable mobility.This is not merely about replacing gas guzzlers with silent, electric counterparts; it is about crafting an ecosystem where vehicles are not only emission-free but also mesh seamlessly with an eco-conscious lifestyle.This vision, embraced by leading global entities like the European Parliament, Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG), McKinsey, TRATON, and the Global Battery Alliance [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], aims to diminish our carbon footprint, conserve energy, and drive us toward a healthier and wealthier future.
When speaking to EV enthusiasts, their motivations often highlight a mix of personal and policy-driven reasons.
• A sense of social responsibility toward sustainable, green, and eco-friendly transportation.
• Financial incentives such as tax breaks or other policy-driven advantages make the initial purchase more appealing.• The perceived economic benefit of charging at home, which, compared to traditional fueling, offers lower operational costs.Conversely, those hesitant to embrace the EV technology frequently cite concerns that suggest perceived shortcomings in EV reliability: • Worries about the immaturity of EV technology, particularly regarding the lifespan and durability of batteries and other electronic power components.• Concerns over the high costs associated with battery replacement and uncertainty about the battery's longevity, questioning the overall cost-effectiveness compared to potential savings on fuel [6].• Apprehensions about reduced battery performance in cold or rainy weather lead to significantly shorter ranges and uncertainty about how far the vehicle can travel [7], [8], [9], [10].

Feature Feature
Authorized licensed use limited to the terms of the applicable license agreement with IEEE.Restrictions apply.

IEEE Reliability Magazine
• Fears of safety risks, particularly concerning battery malfunctions that could lead to fires or thermal runaways, and the effectiveness of current fire suppression technologies for EVs [7], [11], [12].
These reservations from the "no" camp highlight that battery reliability is a pivotal factor currently limiting the wider adoption of green transportation solutions.In our opinion, this is not a mere anecdote; it reflects a significant barrier in the journey toward a more sustainable mobility future.
The journey toward more reliable batteries has seen researchers and manufacturers dive deep into isolated innovations-from improving battery designs and optimizing power densities to adapting to environmental challenges, user behaviors, and charging habits [13].While these efforts have pushed the boundaries of what EV batteries can do, we are convinced that the quest for a truly reliable, integrated solution continues.
As we delve into this topic, we invite you to explore the intricate dance of factors that define battery reliability.From the individual user's experiences to industry-wide practices and societal impacts, understanding reliability requires a panoramic view.Join us as we navigate through the reliability ecosystem, dissecting how advancements in technology, policy, and consumer behavior intersect to redefine the future of electric mobility.Let us embark on this journey together, imagining a future where EVs not only promise a cleaner, greener planet but also deliver unwavering reliability and performance.

"Reliability-as-a-whole"
In the world of EVs, battery reliability does not just begin and end with the battery itself-we consider that vehicle batteries are part of a much larger "Reliability Ecosystem."This term casts a net far wider than the physical components of a battery, capturing a complex web of factors, interactions, and stakeholders all playing their part in the battery's performance and dependability.Imagine this ecosystem as a theater where micro-, meso-, and macroperspectives are actors on a stage, each delivering crucial lines that together tell the full story of EV-battery reliability (Figure 1).
At the microlevel, we dive into the personal experiences of EV owners-their joys, frustrations, and everyday interactions with their vehicles.This is where the rubber meets the road, quite literally, offering firsthand insights into how these batteries perform in real-world conditions.
Zoom out a bit to the meso-level, and you will find the bustling marketplace of manufacturers, suppliers, and service networks.Here, the industry's heartbeat pulses with innovation and competition, as each player strives to enhance the quality and reliability of their battery offerings.
Then, at the grand scale, the macroperspective brings into focus the societal, environmental, and economic canvases that frame the entire ecosystem.It is a realm where policies, global market trends, and environmental regulations sketch the outlines of what is possible, guiding both consumer choices and industry practices.
From our perspective, we think that the dance between these levels is a dynamic one.Consumer experiences at the microlevel inform manufacturers' decisions in the mesoarena, which in turn influences the macrolandscape of policies and market trends.It is our view that it is a feedback loop where individual stories of battery performance can ripple out to inspire industry-wide changes and, conversely, where global initiatives for sustainability and emissions reductions can trickle down to shape the daily EV experience.
In "Reliability-as-a-Whole," we peel back the layers of this ecosystem to show how deeply interconnected these perspectives are.From the individual's journey with their EV to the global march toward sustainability, every level plays a pivotal role in driving forward the reliability and effectiveness of EV batteries.This intricate web of influences supports our belief that: to truly enhance battery reliability, we must engage with and understand the entire ecosystem-no perspective can be overlooked.

Enriched reliability lifecycle
We envisage that, in the world of EV batteries, the transition from "Zero" to "Hero" is not about the saga of superheroes, but rather about how operational reliability is transformed from a general asset into a bespoke journey for EV batteries.We anticipate that it is a story of exploring battery life from inception to rebirth, where each phase intricately impacts the overall reliability and functionality.
Starting with the battery's inherent reliability (Figure 2), our focus extends beyond the cells, modules, and control system, delving into the reliability built into the battery during its design and manufacturing stages.But we foresee that the story does not end there-the integration of the battery with the EV's overall design and functionality reveals a deeper interdependence, exploring how the battery truly becomes an inseparable part of the vehicle (see Figure 3).
Yet, our predictions suggest that the real revolution occurs in the so-called "Zero" life phase, a period between the battery's completion of manufacturing and its installation for first use.This is not merely a time frame but a window of opportunity for vehicle manufacturers to use these batteries for energy storage, instead of just storing them as inventory.We project that, this practice not only efficiently uses resources but also starts the operational lifecycle of the battery earlier, offering cost savings in terms of reduced testing for manufacturers.
On the use reliability front, we are of the opinion that each stage uniquely contributes to the battery's durability and performance.Notably, the "use and reuse" stage sees the battery achieving multiple lifecycles within its initial product application.As they continue to be utilized in different EVs or other less  Authorized licensed use limited to the terms of the applicable license agreement with IEEE.Restrictions apply.

IEEE Reliability Magazine
demanding applications, these varied lifecycles collectively constitute the battery's 1. n (n ≥ 1) use life.The "repurpose" stage, often seen in energy storage applications, essentially grants these batteries a second life in different products.
It is our view that the disposal stage, often given limited attention in general reliability lifecycles, plays a pivotal role in the EV-battery reliability lifecycle.The "Recycle" stage, where raw materials from spent batteries are reclaimed for new battery production, provides critical reliability information, especially from the perspective of sustainable development goals (SDGs).This stage emphasizes the growing importance of sustainable practices in the lifecycle of EV batteries.
We reason that this story, from Zero to Hero, is not just about technological evolution but about rethinking the battery life journey in sustainable, innovative ways, ensuring that the future of EVs is not just bright but sustainable.

From genesis to reincarnation
We also believe that, in the realm of EVs, the journey of a battery from birth to its final bow is not just a path; it is an odyssey that speaks volumes about the marvel of engineering and sustainability entwined together.
We assume that this narrative unfolds in three captivating acts: inherent reliability, operational prowess, and the grand finale of recycling.Let us dive into this saga (Figure 4).
• Act One: The Genesis of Inherent Reliability.Here, in the hallowed halls of design and manufacturing, the EV battery is born.This stage sets the stage for everything that follows, imbuing the battery with a robustness and resilience that will carry it through the trials and tribulations of its life.Imagine this phase as the battery's DNAcoding for a life less ordinary, one marked by longevity, fewer stumbles in its youth, and a prime candidate for a meaningful afterlife.• Act Two: The Voyage of Total Use Reliability.As our battery steps into the world, it is greeted by the harsh realities and variegated landscapes of actual use.Here, its tale of resilience is put to the test, navigating through cycles of use and reuse, perhaps even reincarnating as a guardian of energy in its next life as part of a storage system.This act is as mentioned, where the rubber meets the road, where the inherent strengths nurtured in the crucible of manufacturing now face the relentless march of time and the elements.• Act Three: Recycling-The Phoenix's Rebirth.The closing act of our battery's journey is no less dramatic.As it approaches the end of its operational saga, the stage of recycling awaits.Here, the past acts of inherent and operational reliability converge, determining the ease with which this storied protagonist can be reborn.A battery, graced with high inherent reliability, finds itself a treasure trove for recyclers, promising a legacy that extends far beyond its physical lifespan.
From the above perspective, we think that this trilogy of reliability is not just a technical process; it is a testament to the cyclical dance of innovation, usage, and rejuvenation that defines the EV battery's life.

Unveiling the reliability ecosystem
In the electrified saga of modern mobility, envision the journey of EV batteries through the lens of a geometric marvel: the triangular prism.Based on our assessment, we believe that this elegant figure serves not just as a visual delight but as a profound metaphor for the intricate world of battery reliability.Picture, if you will, a structure that transcends mere form to embody the dynamic interplay of forces that shape the destiny of EV batteries.Figure 5 implies that.
• At the very heart of this narrative are the Points, the unsung heroes.These are not mere dots scattered across a page but pivotal protagonists in the tale of reliability.They embody everything from the microscopic intricacies of a single battery cell to the colossal influence of societal norms.These points mark the inception of reliability, the inherent strength, and potential within each battery, and the cyclical journey toward recycling and rebirth.• Lines emerge as the bonds that forge connections across this reliability realm.They are the silent currents of energy, information, and materials flowing between points, drawing together Authorized licensed use limited to the terms of the applicable license agreement with IEEE.Restrictions apply.

Feature
IEEE Reliability Magazine the micro intricacies and macrovisions into a cohesive narrative.These lines narrate tales of interactions, constraints, and the relentless pursuit of coherence within the system.• The prism's Surfaces unfold as networks of points and lines, each a microcosm of interactions within the greater saga.These surfaces reveal the nuanced interplay between design, operation, and the eventual recycling of EV batteries.They mirror the complexity of life itself, where myriad connections weave into patterns of reliability and resilience.• Enveloping this world is the Body of the prism, a holistic representation of the EV battery's reliability ecosystem.It encapsulates the accumulated wisdom, challenges, and triumphs of the system.This body stands testament to the collective journey of components and processes, melding into a symphony of reliability and efficiency.• Yet, the narrative expands beyond the confines of this geometric universe, venturing into the domain of system of systems (SoSs).Here, the story of EV batteries intertwines with other technological marvels like smart grids and charging stations, each system contributing its unique melody to the grand orchestration of modern mobility.
This chapter is not merely a recount of components and connections.We reason that it is a voyage from the tangible Components to the abstract realms of Cognition, where points aspire, lines facilitate, and surfaces evolve into industry segments and research domains.We think that it is an exploration into how the interplay of microlevel ambitions to macrolevel integrations fosters advancements in reliability, performance, and sustainability of EV batteries.
In this geometric allegory, we are invited to view the reliability ecosystem and lifecycle of EV batteries not just as a technical challenge but as an epic narrative of integration, innovation, and transformation.It is a journey where each point, line, and surface contribute to a grand vision of sustainable mobility, woven together within the complex tapestry of SoSs.

Evolution of EV-battery reliability systems
Navigating the complex world of EV battery reliability, our journey transcends the static confines of points, lines, and surfaces to embrace the dimension that fundamentally transforms everything (see Figure 6): time.Imagine a hyperplane, a multidimensional expanse where the intricate dance of reliability elements unfolds, where the essence of Inherent Reliability (R i ), Total Use Reliability (R u ), and Recycling (R e ) glide across the stage, influenced by the underlying currents of Micro (M i ), Meso (M e ), and Macro (M a ) levels.ω represents the Normal Vector; θ 1 , θ 2 , θ 3 represent angles, and d 1 , d 2 , d 3 represent distance.
We envisage that, at a singular moment, when all vectors align-when the perspectives of manufacturers, users, and societal goals merge into a seamless unity-we reach a stationary status.This alignment Figure 5. Reliability system of EV batteries: from point to SoSs [13].
Authorized licensed use limited to the terms of the applicable license agreement with IEEE.Restrictions apply.
is not merely an achievement; it is a symphony of the entire ecosystem resonating in perfect harmony, where the reliability system meets and exceeds stakeholder expectations with precision.
Yet, in the realm of EV batteries, we acclaim that static is a misnomer.Time introduces a pulsating dynamism, transforming stationary reliability into a vibrant, evolving entity.As we project the critical aspects of the micro-, meso-, and macrolevels onto this hyperplane, we uncover the strategic implications: from enhancing product quality and ensuring customer delight at the microlevel, to shaping  Feature IEEE Reliability Magazine organizational competitiveness and industry dynamics at the mesolevel, and further extending to societal sustainability and environmental stewardship at the macrolevel.
But we affirm that time does not stand still.It propels the reliability system forward, from a moment of perfect alignment to periods of flux and adaptation.We advocate that this journey from t 0 → t 1 , and then t 1 → t 2 , is marked by energy shifts-be they the tangible wear and tear of battery cells or the metaphorical shift in market demands and technological breakthroughs.We declare that these shifts are not obstacles; they are catalysts for continuous optimization, driving the reliability system toward greater efficiency and resilience.
We endorse that, in this dynamic landscape, the goal becomes clear: to minimize θ * → 0, to bring every angle toward zero, symbolizing a reliability system that is not only optimally aligned with today's needs but is also adaptable and responsive to tomorrow's challenges.Through this lens, we gain profound insights into the intrinsic nature of optimizing EV-battery reliability systems, underscoring the imperative for a flexible, forward-looking approach that can navigate the ebbs and flows of time.
As we delve deeper into the dynamic interplay of time within the EV-battery reliability ecosystem, we are not just observing the evolution of technology.We are witnessing a paradigm shift in how we conceptualize, manage, and enhance the reliability of one of the most crucial components of the green transportation revolution.

S-ILKM and EV-battery reliability
We endorse that in the rapidly evolving landscape of Industry 4.0 and smart manufacturing, a seismic shift is underway.From the confines of industrial large knowledge models (ILKMs) [14], which have traditionally homed in on the intricate challenges of industrial settings, we are steering toward a more expansive horizon: the social-ILKM (S-ILKM).This is not just an upgrade-it is a revolution in how we harness the power of large language models (LLMs) to not only make manufacturing smarter but also more connected to the pulse of society.
We champion that the genesis of ILKMs was transformative, embedding domain-specific knowledge deep within LLMs to navigate the complexities of smart manufacturing.Yet, we contend that their vision, though sharp, was narrowly focused on the industrial fabric, primarily addressing mesolevel quandaries.But, as we delve into the realm of EV battery reliability, a realization dawns-the scope of ILKMs, while groundbreaking, could stretch even further.
Enter S-ILKM (see Figure 7), a visionary leap that transcends the industrial centricity of its predecessors.We uphold that it is an approach that does not just peer into the factory floor but also gazes outwards, embracing the dynamism of micro and macrolevel shifts that ripple through time.S-ILKM does not just listen to the hum of machinery; it also tunes into the global symphony of market trends, regulatory shifts, and the collective voice of users.It is a model that recognizes the interconnectedness of the industrial sphere with societal and global narratives.
By weaving together industry-specific insights with a rich tapestry of public open-source data, S-ILKM aspires to refine systems in their entirety.We assert that this holistic ambition stretches far beyond addressing industrial tasks or navigating the nuances of language.It aims to embed the specificity of the EV battery industry within the broader context of societal trends and global challenges.
As we embark on this journey with S-ILKM, we are not just advancing technology; we are redefining the very ecosystem of smart manufacturing and EV battery reliability.We declare that this pioneering model stands as a beacon for the future, guiding us toward a smarter, more interconnected world where industry and society converge in harmony.Through S-ILKM, we advocate that the promise of Industry 4.0 and smart manufacturing blooms into its full potential, heralding a new era where technology truly meets the pulse of the global community.

Sustainable future
As we round off this exploration into the intricate world of EV battery reliability, a clear vision emerges-a vision that calls for a departure from the traditional, fragmented focus on singular components to a grand, cohesive strategy for system-wide optimization.This shift is not just a technical necessity; it is a commitment to our planet's future, harmonizing cutting-edge technology with our global ambitions for sustainability.
Our journey through this study has illuminated the path forward, charting a course for both upcoming research endeavors and the practical advancement of sustainable transportation.It underscores the pivotal role of EV-battery reliability not merely as a technical challenge but as the cornerstone of a greener, more efficient world on wheels.This narrative does not just conclude here.We pronounce that it opens a dialog, a call to action for every stakeholder in the realm of transportation.From the curious consumer to the pioneering manufacturer, it beckons us to question, engage, and innovate.How do we, as a global community, contribute to the evolution of EV battery reliability?How can our collective efforts propel us toward a future where transportation is not just about moving from A to B but doing so in a way that treasures our planet?
In champIonIng a holistic approach that marries the nuances of ecosystem analysis, lifecycle creativity, and systemic cognition, we are not just engineering batteries-we are crafting the blueprint for the future of sustainable transportation.From our perspective, this study does not just add to the discourse; it redefines it, setting a new standard for what it means to develop sustainable, high-performance, and enduring EV batteries.Join us in this revolutionary journey toward electrifying our roads with the promise of sustainability and efficiency, for a world that drives forward, mindful of every footprint it leaves behind.