Cryogenic Electronics Development for High-Energy Physics: An Overview of Design Considerations, Benefits, and Unique Challenges

In the quest to study the fundamental nature of matter and the universe, high-energy physics (HEP) experiments often operate in extreme conditions that lie well outside the standard operating range of integrated circuits (ICs). Two prominent examples of such extreme environments are 1) the irradiation levels experienced at high luminosity colliders and 2) operation at cryogenic temperatures [1]. Cryogenic electronics is a broad term that encompasses circuits operating at temperatures below the standard operating limit (−55 °C in the case of military grade electronics), all of the way down to millikelvin, as in the case of superconducting circuits. Cryogenic circuits have a long history [2] and have found applications in a broad spectrum of applications, such as infrared focal plane arrays, positron emission tomography, and quantum science. While CMOS circuits have been reliably operated at deep-cryogenic temperatures (<; 4.2 K), this article focuses on applications down to liquid nitrogen (77 K) and provides an overview of the design considerations, benefits, and unique challenges pertaining to cryogenic CMOS ICs for large HEP experiments.