Informed consent in distributed cognitive systems: The role of conflict type, time pressure, and trust [aircraft pilots]

In order to better understand the impact of these factors, this study examined conflict detection as a function of data link gating, time pressure, display design (graphic vs. text), and the nature of the conflict (goal vs. implementation conflict). The latter aspect has not been examined in earlier research but was suggested as an important factor by Olson and Sarter's (1998) survey data which indicate that conflicts between automated systems and human operators occur at both the goal level and the implementation level. Goal conflicts involve a discrepancy either between clearance instructions and other flight constraints and regulations-an inappropriate goal conflict-or between the clearance instructions and the current aircraft state (i.e., a clearance to descend to an altitude above the current altitude)-an impossible goal conflict. Implementation conflicts involve an automated system that does less or more than expected by the pilot, or that performs a task in an unexpected or undesirable manner. In addition to the nature of the conflict, both time pressure as well as the design of associated data link displays may influence conflict detection.