Backward-Wave Oscillators

The Pierce traveling-wave tube theory is modified to apply to the backward-wave oscillator. Theoretical dependence of both starting current and frequency upon space charge and circuit loss is calculated, as is the dependence of efficiency upon these parameters. Good experimental confirmation is obtained with two tubes, one of which was of adjustable length. Pushing, pulling, stability, frequency gaps, and spurious oscillations are described and explained. Lack of oscillation at low-voltage end of tuning range of some tubes is tentatively assigned to a velocity-distribution effect.