Battery Passport for Second-Life Batteries: Potential Applications and Challenges

The capacity of electric vehicle batteries degrades depending on users’ driving and charging behaviors and operating conditions. Degraded batteries can provide energy and power to second-use applications as energy storage. However, the feasibility of a second-life battery strongly depends on price and technical properties such as the remaining capacity, temperature, and cycle life. Besides, new battery production needs intensive mining, leading to extensive water and electricity consumption and carbon emissions. Therefore, second-life applications can extend existing storage and balance the needs of numerous new batteries, whose prices are intensively related to political, economic, ethnic, and social factors. This review investigates the critical phases, economics, market, problems, future importance of new production, second life, and recycling, and reveals potential challenges and solutions. Moreover, battery chemistries are compared using comprehensive terminology. Three selected battery models commonly used in research are mathematically described and compared. Recent advances in thermal modeling are mathematically discussed, and the experimental methodology for state of health estimation and battery model parameterization is detailed. End-of-life estimation methods are discussed, and the often neglected state of function phenomenon is expressed mathematically. Standards, regulations, second-life application areas, recycling process, and precious metal market are briefly explained. In addition, a blockchain perspective is suggested for untraceable raw data in the cradle-to-grave battery cycle. Developing artificial intelligence-based data processing empowered by blockchain to enhance battery features further may help sustainable development and clean energy utilization.