The dynamic linkage between ecological footprint, foreign direct investment, industrialization, urbanization and airway freight Transportation. Evidence from BICS countries

This study investigates the interconnections between urbanization, industrialization, foreign direct investment, economic growth, freight transportation, and ecological footprint in Brazil, India, China, and South Africa. The STIRPAT model is employed to analyse their interactions during the period from 1970 to 2018. By adopting a comprehensive methodological approach, including unit root tests, lag length selection, ARDL cointegration analysis, robustness checks, and causality analyses, this study contributes to the academic discussion on ecological sustainability. The model considers air freight transportation, industrialization, foreign direct investment, economic growth, and urbanization as determinants of ecological footprint. Through these rigorous analyses, the study reveals the complex relationships among these factors and their collective impact on the environmental sustainability of the BICS nations.