A Framework for Comparing the Economic Performance and Associated Emissions of Grid-connected Battery Storage Systems in Existing Building Stock: a NYISO Case Study

This study develops a framework for assessing the potential economic and environmental feasibility of simulated distributed energy resource (DER) installations as peak shaving demand response (DR) assets in existing residential and commercial building stock. We simulate the use of lithium-ion (Li-ion), lead-acid (Pb-a), sodium-sulfur (NaS), and vanadium redox flow (VRF) energy storage systems (ESS) with on-site photovoltaics (PV), and model the buildings as connected to the New York Independent System Operator (NYISO) grid. We generate performance curves in terms of normalized cost/profit and equivalent carbon dioxide (CO
₂
eq) emissions using New York City irradiation levels and utility rate structures. These show the spread of potential economic and environmental value that each building can accrue as a decentralized DR resource. Our findings show net emission decreases up to -0.31 kg CO
₂
eq per kWh of energy delivered by the PV-ESS system, and normalized profits up to $0.01/kWh, when reducing peak demand up to 75% in an office building; up to -0.31 kg CO
₂
eq/kWh at a cost of $0.08/kWh when reducing up to 65% of peak loads in an apartment complex and supermarket; and, in a hospital, up to -0.34 kgCO
₂
eq/kWh at a cost of $0.08/kWh for peak load reduction up to 40%. Our results show qualitatively similar performance curves across ESS types, though VRF tends to outperform the others economically. We find that only a small number of simulations (<; 1%) result in profitable outcomes, though reducing low estimates of ESS and PV costs by 20% (to an average of $419/kWh and $1792/kWp, respectively) is sufficient to produce profitable peak shaving in the office building. Substantially greater reductions of 75%, 80%, and 90% are required to achieve the same in the supermarket, apartments, and hospital, respectively. Simultaneous ESS applications in addition to peak shaving, and DER value streams beyond the conventional utility rates considered here, would improve the economic viability of these building-level systems.