Apollo looking forward: Crew task challenges

During the Apollo landings, onboard astronauts, along with analysis and instructions from mission control, performed the majority of complex tasks beyond automated guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C). The crew played a significant role in the landings and were critical to navigating to the landing site, selecting a safe landing aim point, and commanding the spacecraft via a hand controller. Thus the requirements and constraints for site selection, launch dates, and GN&C design were driven in large part by human capabilities. Each of the major tasks performed by the crew will be described to provide an understanding of the functions that must be performed by either automation or people (on or off-board) for the next generation lunar lander. Additionally, several of the Apollo missions faced significant issues in identifying the landing site and assessing the safety of that landing site. These missions serve as case studies for future landing challenges that must be overcome.