Evaluating human sense of presence in in-situ VR footbridge simulator

Virtual reality has been increasingly used in architecture, engineering, and construction to enhance design and human experience. While audio and visual advancements have progressed rapidly, realistic multisensory integration is essential for accurate assessment of built environments. This study presents a virtual reality simulator that replicates the testbed Warwick Footbridge in situ. For validation, the physical footbridge was modelled in Unreal Engine and displayed via a Quest 2 headset. Real-time displacement data of the footbridge, collected using a linear variable differential transformer, were utilised to simulate the bridge vibration movement in the virtual reality environment. Two test subjects performed tasks, including turning and walking across the bridge, to assess their sense of presence. Subjective feedback was collected using the Igroup Presence Questionnaire, with ratings compared against qualitative scales. Results showed that while average scores for spatial presence, involvement, and realism were marginally acceptable, the overall sense of presence was rated as acceptable, with one subject reporting it as satisfactory and the other as excellent. This study verifies the virtual reality-based simulator as a novel platform for assessing human sensations on footbridges.