Scalable Inflatable Origami Robot Modules With Proprioceptive Closed-Loop Shape Control

This paper introduces a novel pneumatic origami module that embeds a proprioceptive closed-loop shape control through seamless sensor-hardware integration. Each module incorporates a spring along the stretchable airflow passage in conjunction with an individual solenoid valve, enabling intrinsic proprioceptive sensing via inductance measurement while maintaining pneumatic and mechanical reliability. The compact module, measuring 40 × 80 × 35 mm and weighing 55 g, features an adjustable height range of 29 to 71 mm under −25 to 25 kPa pressure. Experimental validation confirmed the notable performance of the module, with a consistent inflation time under various assembly combinations, a maximum extension force of 80.37 N, a low sensing hysteresis error of 7.58%, and sufficient durability to withstand 5,000 activation cycles. The resulting module assembly enables closed-loop shape control in both individual and synchronized multi-module operations, eliminating the need for external sensor attachments and demonstrating a highly responsive, precise, and adaptive shape-morphing process. This compliant, controllable, and straightforward module can serve as an unprecedented foundation for shape-programmable embodied intelligence in emerging autonomous robotic systems.