Rare Earth Elements: Trade-Off for Environment, Energy Security and Policies

The green technologies are dependent on critical materials and rare earth elements (REE) which are seen to be linked with the energy security in Europe. Disruptions in the REE supply chain can heavily impact the rhythm of green energy transition. The REE are abundant in nature despite their intriguing name, but capabilities for mining and refining are rather limited with environmental and geopolitical concerns. This paper aims to identify and discuss lessons from REE mining and processing around the world in an environmental and social impacts perspective. Furthermore, this paper discusses existing REE projects and policies in European and Nordic context. Technologies and technological changes can trigger paradigmatical shifts in energy system, but technology needs to be supported by sound policies. Innovative solutions for offshore wind need to aim for design optimization with REE reduction or substitutions as a part of green circular economy.