Spatial Mini Golf: Game-Based Spatial Intelligence Testing and Training Using VR and Non-VR Platforms

Spatial intelligence is a key determinant of students' motivation and success in pursuing a STEM career. To improve students' participation in STEM subjects it is important to test and train spatial skills in an enjoyable and unobtrusive manner. We present Spatial Mini Golf, a game designed to test and enhance spatial intelligence, targeting four sub-skills: visual perception, mental rotation, spatial visualization, and visuospatial working memory. Two versions-VR and desktop-were compared. While VR increases engagement, it also presents control challenges that raise cognitive load and extend task completion times. Performance correlates with spatial intelligence, particularly in desktop environments, but VR reduces performance gaps among lower-ability participants. Our research suggest that both VR and desktop games are suitable for testing and training spatial reasoning skills. VR tools might be more accessible for users with low spatial skills if intuitive and easy-to-use interfaces are provided, but results might get affected by users' hand-eye coordination.