Principles and Applications of Converters for High-Frequency Measurements

The heterodyne method permits measurements over wide frequency bands with the standards operating at a fixed frequency. The accuracy of such measurements depends upon the performance of heterodyne conversion transducers or converters. Design principles are derived to maximize linearity and dynamic range and minimize zero corrections. These principles have been applied successfully to point-by-point and sweep measurements of delay, phase, transmission, and impedance.