Can Direct Manipulation Lower the Barriers to Programming and Promote Positive Transfer to Textual Programming? An Experimental Study

Novices face many barriers when learning to program, including the need to learn both a new syntax and a model of computation. By constraining syntax and providing concrete visual representations on which to operate, direct manipulation programming environments can potentially lower these barriers. However, what if the learning goal of the novice is to be able ultimately to program in conventional textual languages, as is the case for introductory computer science students? Can direct manipulation programming environments lower the barriers to programming, and, at the same time, promote positive transfer to textual programming? To address this question, we designed a new direct manipulation programming interface for ALVIS Live!, a novice programming environment. We then conducted an experimental study that compared the programming outcomes promoted by the new direct manipulation interface to those promoted by ALVIS Live!'s textual programming interface. We found that the direct manipulation interface not only led to significantly better initial programming outcomes, but also to significant positive transfer to the textual interface. Our results show that direct manipulation interfaces can provide novices with a "way in" to traditional textual programming