Sampling + DMR: Practical and low-overhead permanent fault detection

With technology scaling, manufacture-time and in-field permanent faults are becoming a fundamental problem. Multi-core architectures with spares can tolerate them by detecting and isolating faulty cores, but the required fault detection coverage becomes effectively 100% as the number of permanent faults increases. Dual-modular redundancy(DMR) can provide 100% coverage without assuming device-level fault models, but its overhead is excessive.