Minority carrier electron traps in CZTSSe solar cells characterized by DLTS and DLOS

We report observations of minority carrier interactions with deep levels in 6-8% efficient Cu
₂
ZnSn(S, Se)
₄
(CZTSSe) devices using conventional and minority deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and deep level optical spectroscopy (DLOS). Directly observing defect interactions with minority carriers is critical to understanding the recombination impact of deep levels. In devices with Cu
₂
ZnSn(S, Se)
₄
nanoparticle ink absorber layers we identify a mid-gap state capturing and emitting minority electrons. It is 590±50 meV from the conduction band mobility edge, has a concentration near 10
¹⁵
/cm
³
, and has an apparent electron capture cross section ~10
^-14
cm
²
. We conclude that, while energetically positioned nearly-ideally to be a recombination center, these defects instead act as electron traps because of a smaller hole cross-section. In CZTSe devices produced using coevaporation, we used minority carrier DLTS on traditional samples as well as ones with transparent Ohmic back contacts. These experiments demonstrate methods for unambiguously probing minority carrier/defect interactions in solar cells in order to establish direct links between defect energy level observations and minority carrier lifetimes. Furthermore, we demonstrate the use of steady-state device simulation to aid in the interpretation of DLTS results e.g. to put bounds on the complimentary carrier cross section even in the absence its direct measurement. This combined experimental and theoretical approach establishes rigorous bounds on the impact on carrier lifetime and Voc of defects observed with DLTS as opposed to, for example, assuming that all deep states act as strong recombination centers.