Longitudinal In-Vivo X-Ray Fluorescence Computed Tomography With Molybdenum Nanoparticles

X-ray fluorescence computed tomography (XFCT) with nanoparticles (NPs) as contrast agents shows potential for molecular biomedical imaging with higher spatial resolution than present methods. To date the technique has been demonstrated on phantoms and mice, however, parameters such as radiation dose, exposure times and sensitivity have not yet allowed for high-spatial-resolution
in vivo
longitudinal imaging, i.e., imaging of the same animal at different time points. Here we show
in vivo
XFCT with spatial resolution in the 200-
$400~\boldsymbol {\mu }\text{m}$
range in a proof-of-principle longitudinal study where mice are imaged five times each during an eight-week period following tail-vein injection of NPs. We rely on a 24 keV x-ray pencil-beam-based excitation of in-house-synthesized molybdenum oxide NPs (MoO
₂
) to provide the high signal-to-background x-ray fluorescence detection necessary for XFCT imaging with low radiation dose and short exposure times. We quantify the uptake and clearance of NPs
in vivo
through imaging, and monitor animal well-being over the course of the study with support from histology and DNA stability analysis to assess the impact of x-ray exposure and NPs on animal welfare. We conclude that the presented imaging arrangement has potential for
in vivo
longitudinal studies, putting emphasis on designing biocompatible NPs as the future focus for active-targeting preclinical XFCT.